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Religious Influence on Korean Art
What was the importance of landscape painting in traditional Korean art and culture? How did landscape painting develop in Korea? What are the distinctive characteristics of Korean landscape painting?
In Korea, landscape painting—rather than figure paintings or historical
paintings as in the Western world—became the preeminent form in part
because nature itself was considered sacred. Nature was seen as a
living entity. It symbolized both an integral part of human life and a
higher spiritual being. Such a conception of nature was shared also by
China and Japan, with each culture developing its own variations of the
philosophy and related rituals. Given the lofty ideals attached to it,
transferring this vast and superior nature or landscape onto a
two-dimensional surface posed a challenge to artists that in turn
elevated the position of landscape painting.
Another reason that landscape painting became the superior art form in
Korea was the dominance of Confucianism and neo-Confucianism, adopted
from China. This philosophy prescribed, among other things, the
cultivation of the intellect and humility. Translated into art, it
meant that pictures of the human figure—the physical body, the mundane
activities of humans, even historical episodes that focus on human
activity or achievement—were secondary. Instead, landscape painting
emerged as the means for exploration and expression of the intellect
and of the larger world beyond human beings. Not until the eighteenth
century, with the growth of genre painting, does figural painting
become important in Korean art history.
Landscape painting did not take shape immediately. The earliest
depictions of landscape in Korea, from the Three Kingdoms Period (57
BC–668 AD), appear as rudimentary background elements, not as an
independent genre of painting. In the tomb wall paintings of the fifth
century, for example, we see isolated mountains or trees depicted
around figures in action, such as hunting. The human figures and the
landscape put together comprise the whole.
It was during the Koryo period (918–1392) that landscape painting—and
painting in general—blossomed rapidly as an art form in its own right.
This evolution paralleled developments in Song dynasty China
(960–1279). Song and Koryo shared a close relationship of frequent
diplomatic and cultural exchanges. As in the paintings of Northern
Song, monumental landscape painting—pictures that portrayed colossal
mountains and conveyed a sense of awe in nature—became popular in
Koryo. Unfortunately, relatively few examples of landscape painting
from this period survive, which makes it difficult for us today to
assess fully its development and achievements.
Over the five centuries of Korea’s Choson period (1392–1910), the
repertory of landscape painting expanded. There are also many more
extant examples. Two schools of landscape painting were of particular
importance during the Choson period. One was led by the fifteenth
century court artist An Kyon. His landscape paintings adapted and
transformed stylistic and conceptual elements of the old Northern Song
landscapes and perfected a unique style. He played with innovative and
striking compositions that challenged conventional notions of space and
time within painting. His distinctive brushstrokes were copied and
adapted by his followers who continued the tradition even after his
time.
The other major school or style of landscape painting arose in the
eighteenth century, led by the master artist Chong Son. His “True-View”
landscape style revolutionized the whole concept of landscape painting
in Korea. Until then, landscape painting was conceptually abstract: the
landscapes depicted were usually not actual scenery or even the
artists’ personal or emotional reaction to existing landscape, but
rather nature as it was conceived in the artists’ mind. Chong Son’s
paintings portrayed famous scenery in Korea— both previously painted
sites such as the Kumgang Mountainan and other sites that had not been
subjects of landscape painting—and did so in a way that presented the
landscape as real, noble, and personal simultaneously. The achievement
of True View landscape painting lies in its ability to evoke the
essence of both native landscape scenery and native sensibilities.
Buddhism and Buddhist Art in Korea
Buddhism, having originated in India, spread through almost the entire
continent of Asia— and in the twentieth century, to the rest of the
world—profoundly affecting the lives of both the converts and
non-converts. The many different ways in which it has been adapted by
the various cultures and societies attest to both the religion’s
flexibility, as well as to the appeal of its fundamental principles.
Buddhism was first introduced to Korea from China in the fourth century
of the Three Kingdoms Period (57 BC–668 AD). It was subsequently
adopted as the official state religion in each of the three
kingdoms—Koguryo, Paekche, Silla—and remained the state religion
through dynastic changes over the next seven centuries—unified Silla
and Koryo—until the fifteenth century.
In Korea, the period between fifth and eight centuries represents a
good case study of the early development and subsequent flourishing of
Buddhism and Buddhist art. In particular, the development of Buddhist
sculpture illuminates the changes in philosophy and taste. Early
examples (from fifth and sixth centuries) of statues of the Buddha and
other deities of the Buddhist pantheon evidence close iconographic and
stylistic ties to their Chinese models: the elongated face, harsh
facial features, sharp linear folds of the garment, stiff, central
poses. This adoption of Chinese models was inevitable given both the
early stage in the development of Buddhism/ Buddhist icons in Korea and
also the nature of religious statuary, which dictates adherence to
existing archetypes. By the seventh and eight centuries, however,
Korean Buddhist sculpture had matured both conceptually and
stylistically. The famous “Paekche smile” on the small Buddha statues
of the Paekche kingdom, the elegant and individualistic representations
of meditating (or pensive) Buddhas from the seventh century, and the
technically and stylistically unsurpassed sculptures in the eighth
century cave temple of Sokkuram are some of the most striking examples
of the breadth of native development of Buddhist sculpture. Sokkuram
and its sculptures, in particular, exemplify Korean ingeniousness and
the essence of Korean style in Buddhist art. The cave, built as a
dedication to the ancestors of a prominent politician of mid-eight
century, embodied complex mathematical calculations and architectural
genius. The statue of the main Buddha and the wall-carvings of Buddha's
attendants manifest the ideal combination of the divine and the
human—one that was rarely matched in Buddhist statuary of contemporary
China or Japan.
It should be remembered that Buddhist art in Korea, as with religious
art in many ancient societies, was more than purely aesthetic display.
It also represented both the religious fervor and the political
ambitions of the ruling class of the time. For the elite, Buddhism was
not only a religious belief, a practical guide to life, and a means to
salvation after life, but also a way of asserting political power and
of subsuming the society under that power. The temples and iconic
statues afforded the elite both visible public displays of its
political presence and influence as well as a means of spreading and
controlling the religion and the people. This is not to say that
Buddhism and Buddhist art were the sole domain of the political elite.
Buddhism did disseminate to virtually all levels of society, and
objects of worship, such as statues, became accessible to various ranks
of people (either in the form of regional or local temples with
accompanying statuary or of small, personal shrines or icons in private
homes).
After several centuries as the state religion, Buddhism was displaced
by Neo- Confucianism in the Choson period (1392–1910). The latter was a
philosophy based on the teachings of the ancient Chinese scholar
Confucius, rather than a religion, but one that had wide-reaching
influence in all aspects of public and private life in Choson society.
Buddhist worship, as well as the production of Buddhist icons persisted
in the provinces, away from the capital. Today, Buddhism continues to
gain followers, but with increasing competition from other religions,
both ancient and modern, including Christianity.
Genre Painting in 18th Century Korea
Genre painting developed in two directions in the Choson period
(1392–1910). One was as visual representation of the culture and
customs of Choson society and functioned as statepatronized pictures to
be given as gifts to foreign dignitaries (especially Qing Chinese). The
other branch of genre painting involved portrayals of daily activities
of rural communities and began to develop around the seventeenth
century. Paintings of the latter group were based on actual
observations and depicted such mundane activities as farmers working in
the fields, potters making pots, and women sewing.
This line of genre painting further matured and flourished during the
eighteenth century. Such giants in the art world as Kim Hong-do
(1745–1806) perfected genre painting and elevated its position within
the canon of art. Kim’s works show ordinary people, male and female,
young and old, engaged in everyday work or play. The figures are
usually set against an empty or simplified background, so that it is
the facial expressions and physical movements of the figures, along
with the activity at hand—often involving the classroom, public sports
or entertainment, or some type of manual labor—that become the focus of
the picture. The paintings represent a moment in time, frozen, yet
fully alive with all the sounds, actions, and emotions. Kim’s paintings
are also often humorous—such as the scene of a boy being scolded by his
teacher while his schoolmates giggle in the background— highlighting
the light-hearted and playful side of life.
Another major artist of genre painting is Shin Yun-bok (1758–1800s).
Unlike Kim, Shin painted scenes of aristocrat-scholars engaged in
leisurely activities, such as boating or listening to musical
performances. In addition, he is also well known for his pictures of
courtesans (known as kisaeng in Korea). Many of Shin’s paintings
involve a group of men on an outing with courtesans, semi-nude women
bathing or laundering in the stream, or lovers’ secret rendez-vous, and
are either subtly or overtly erotic. In both subject matter and erotic
tone, they are clearly different from Kim’s works and are rather risque
in the context of strait-laced and moralistic Choson society.
It is neither coincidental nor curious that the popularization of genre
painting paralleled the rise of realistic and native-focused landscape
painting (True View landscape) in the late Choson period. Both art
movements emphasized actual observations, real scenes or scenery, and
focused on either the people or landscape of the native land.
Eighteenth century Choson Korea had turned its attention away from
China, which had by then fallen under “barbarian” Manchu occupation,
and looked to itself as the new cultural center of East Asia. This
attitude allowed Koreans more freedom to examine and appreciate their
native traditions. Moreover, a new, popular philosophical movement,
called Sirhak or Practical Learning, pushed intellectuals and artists
to explore practical aspects of life. These factors contributed to the
growth of diverse trends in the arts and encouraged a greater range of
artistic expression in both subject matter and style.
Author: Soyoung Lee.
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